What is a computer hard drive definition. How does a hard drive work?

If you heard the word "Winchester", there are several possible options what the interlocutors are talking about. Of course, this could be a banal conversation between two computer geeks, but even in this case it is not known what exactly is being discussed. Let's figure out what a hard drive is.

Origin

The first and original meaning of this word comes to us from the sphere of weapons production. Winchester is the general name for shotguns manufactured by the Winchester company in the second half of the 19th century. They used a lever reloading system and an under-barrel tubular magazine. Winchesters were quite common in the United States at that time, although this was greatly exaggerated by cinema and literature of the 20th century.

In most cases, a Winchester means an 1866 model rifle. According to the manufacturers, the rifle was supposed to provide a high rate of fire, up to 60 rounds per minute. At the end of the 60s, the production of cartridges for this model ceased.

However, the Winchester Model 1894 rifle, also known as the Winchester .30-30 rifle, deserves a special mention. Produced until 2006, it became one of the most popular and well-known rifles using a lever cocking mechanism. The name of this particular weapon served as an example for the appearance of the word “Winchester” or “Screw” in computer slang.

IT sphere

So what is a hard drive in a computer? This is nothing more than a hard drive or just a hard drive. The first drive was internally marked 30-30, which, according to the creator, is very similar to the name of the aforementioned rifle.

What is a hard drive for an ordinary person? computer user? This is the place on the computer where all the data is stored. Currently, the volumes of hard drives reach quite large volumes, on average up to 2 terabytes, however, even this to an ordinary person not enough. Multimedia files stored on a personal computer quickly leave the user without free space on your hard drive.

What is a hard drive in a computer for an IT specialist? A hard disk is a random access storage device that uses magnetic recording technology. Information in them is recorded on hard plates coated with ferromagnetic material. The information in them is read using special heads when the plates rotate. In operating condition, without touching the surface, they receive information from the NMJD, and when switched off, they are in a safe position to avoid physical contact with surface hard drive.

On a personal computer HDD located inside system unit and connects directly to motherboard via SATA port and power supply.

External technologies

What is a hard drive on a computer, implemented outside the system unit? This is an external memory connected to a personal computer via a USB interface.

First external hard the discs could be assembled in parts. For this purpose the user bought regular hard disk and external case for it. The hard drive was inserted into the case and connected to the USB connector through an adapter. In this organization external memory there were several significant shortcomings.

1. Cooling system. If you plan to use such an implementation of the hard drive, and you need to work with it every day and around the clock, then the existing cooling system is not enough, or rather, it is completely absent there. As a result, there is a very high chance of damaging the disk due to overheating.
2. Slow USB hub speed. Compared to the interface used inside the system unit, USB is not capable of providing fast data transfer for large amounts of information.
3. Location in space. Many cases offer mounting in vertical arrangement, and not horizontally, which greatly affects operation and leads to physical damage to the disk.

What is a hard drive that can serve its owner normally and for a long time? Modern external drives have made a good step forward compared to the described option. Now you can safely buy ready-made hard drives and use them.

Laptop

What is a hard drive in a laptop? This is exactly the same hard drive as in a personal computer, with the exception of minor technological changes in implementation. NMHD in a laptop is more similar in implementation to external hard drives, since it has a more compact size.

This article should have helped you understand what a hard drive is and where the name came from. We hope you find this article useful in Everyday life.

Good day to everyone, my dear friends and readers. A friend told me that when he was still working in a video salon, a granny of about 70-80 years old came to see him. She approached a friend and said that she needed “HADEDE”. The friend didn’t seem to understand right away and asked again, “hadede?” She repeated it again, but when she saw that her friend was not smoking, she took out a piece of paper and said that her grandson told her to buy HADEDE.

On that piece of paper it was written HDD 160 GB. Well, the friend grinned and said that it was a hard drive for a computer and directed them to another store. But that’s not what’s surprising anymore. How could a grandson even send his grandmother for hard drive? Well, did he fall out of the oak tree?

But what am I getting at? Let me tell you what a HDD is in a computer. Then you definitely won’t have any questions if you want to buy it for yourself.

HDD (Hard Disk Drive) is the hard drive of your computer. You can hear in conversations and alternative names of this device, for example “Winchester”, “Screw”, “Hard”, “Hard”, etc. This device is needed to store your information; in addition, the operating system in which you work is installed on it. Those. Without a hard drive, you can't do much with your computer.

The hard drive is a long-term source of memory and after the power is turned off, all information remains on it, unlike fast random access memory. Therefore, you can always store your files, photos, music, etc. on it. But of course this is a device, so don’t forget about it for greater security.

I can already hear the question “Why is it called a hard drive? These are small arms!” Indeed, what could a storage device have in common with a gun? The fact is that in 1973, the well-known company IBM released the hard drive model 3340, but for the sake of harmony they began to call it simply “30-30”, which meant two modules of 30 megabytes each.

Chief Kenneth Haughton found the 30-30 consonance in the famous rifle. The fact is that the cartridges for this rifle had the same marking 30-30, where the first number meant the size of the caliber in inches (0.30 - 7.62 cm), and the second number meant the weight of gunpowder in grains (this is not a typo, but a measure of weight ), which the cartridge was filled with (30 grains is approximately 1.94 grams).

For convenience, it was decided to use this name as slang. True, this slang has not been used by Americans for a long time, but in our country it has not yet gone out of use, although more often it can be heard in the abbreviated name “Screw”.

Hard drive device

Externally, this thing looks like a small rectangular box, but inside it there are several magnetic disks on one spindle, which look somewhat similar to a CD. And of course, there is a certain reading head, which runs along these magnetic plates, reading all the information. Well, of course, there are other components, but I think that these are all details.

And this work is somewhat similar to the work of a record player, only the reader does not have a needle and does not touch the magnetic disks, although the distance between them is simply insignificant.

Basic characteristics of the hard drive

Volume

The capacity of your hard drive determines how much information you can store on it. Over time, the memory size on new hard drives increases, as there is a real need for it. If on my first computer the volume was 40 GB and that was enough for me, now I have 2000 GB on my computer and I have already used half of it. Of course, some can be removed without tears).

But there is one trick. Manufacturers write the size, for example, 500 GB, but when you connect the hard drive to the computer, you will see a much smaller volume there, about 476 GB. Where did the 24 extra GB go? Yes, it's very simple.

Manufacturers round up the sizes, saying 1 GB is 1000 MB, 1 MB is 1000 KB, etc. It turns out that they are selling you a disk with a capacity of 500 million bytes, and if you divide by 1000, and then by another 1000, you get 500 GB.

But 1 GB is actually not 1000, but 1024 MB, just as 1 MB is not 1000, but 1024 KB. As a result, it turns out that we divide 500 million by 1024, and then by 1024 again and get our 476 GB with kopecks. My 2 terabyte disk consumes about 140 GB. Not bad, right? In general, now you will know.

Rotational speed

The performance of a hard drive is also determined by the spindle speed. And the higher this speed, the greater the disk performance, but the more energy required and the greater the likelihood of failure.

For laptops and external hard drives, the speed of 5400 rpm is most often used, since this is really more expedient for these devices. The speed of information exchange is lower, but there is a lower probability of failure.

On desktop computers in most cases, hard drives are installed with a speed of 7200 rpm. This is really beneficial here, since stationary equipment usually has more powerful equipment that can operate at such a speed. Plus, the computer is constantly connected to the outlet, which means there will be no shortage of energy.

There are also large quantity rpm, even 15,000, but I won’t consider them here.

Connection interface

And of course, hard drives are constantly being improved and even their connection connectors are changing. Let's see what connectors there are.

IDE (ATA/PATA) is a so-called parallel interface with a possible data usage speed of up to 133 MB per second. But today this interface is outdated and hard drives with such a connector are no longer produced.

SATA - Serial interface, a more modern one, which replaced the IDE. The standard has this moment there are three different revisions with at different speeds data transfer: SATA 1 - up to 150 MB/s, SATA 2 - up to 300 MB/s, SATA 3, up to 600 MB/s.

USB - This standard refers to external portable hard drives that are connected to a computer via USB and can be used in peace of mind. The advantage of such a device is that you can turn it off at any time without turning off the computer itself.

There are other interfaces, such as SCSI or SAS, but these are no longer mandatory standards for simple use.

Form factor

I was recently asked, what is the form factor of hard drives? Everything is simple here. These are just its dimensions. There are 2.5 and 3.5 inches. Of course, there are others, but no one uses them in everyday life or they are long outdated.

A 2.5" HDD will be inserted into laptops, and a 3.5" HDD into desktop computers. I think you won't confuse anything)

Well, that seems to be all I wanted to tell you in this article. But I can already hear: “Why didn’t you tell me about the SSD?” My friends, a separate article needs to be written about SSDs, especially since this type is a high-speed solid-state drive. In general, I will definitely write about him).

Best regards, Dmitry Kostin.

Anyone modern computer- stationary or portable - requires a device to store large amounts of data. Of all the types of electronic storage that exist today, the most capacious are magnetic drives. hard drives(the second, simpler name is hard drive). For computer or laptop worthy alternative they don't have one yet. And only in portable devices - smartphones, tablets, some subnotebooks - flash memory is used instead, since flash drives are more compact and less fragile than magnetic disks.

Hard drive or hard drive?

Today, these terms are used interchangeably in the computer environment. Where did such an unusual name for IT come from? Let's look at the history of the computer industry.

In the early 1970s magnetic storage were promising, but very far from perfect technology. Although the first hard drive for a computer was released back in 1956, a cabinet the size of a couple of refrigerators, weighing one and a half tons and with a capacity of 5 megabytes was too large even for scientific institutes - the main customer of such products at that time.

In 1973, IBM released the revolutionary model 3340, which was distinguished by both high access speeds at that time and large capacity: two hard drives of 30 MB each were installed in two cabinets. It was because of the volume that the developers called this model “30-30”. One of the Winchester 30-30 rifle models had the same markings. With someone's light hand engineers began to call their "Winchester" new development. Later, this name went beyond IBM and was assigned to all hard drives.

Hard drive device

The main part of the hard drive, which gives the name to the entire device, are round aluminum (less often glass or ceramic) plates coated with a ferromagnetic layer. In the first models of hard drives, unstable iron oxide was used as a coating; now the most popular material is chromium dioxide. It is on these plates that information is stored. A modern hard drive can consist of either one such plate or several. Now in more detail about the design of the device.

The plates are fixed on an axis, which is connected to an electric motor that ensures their rotation relative to the block magnetic heads. The latter are used to write and read information from the plates. Two heads are connected to each of them: one works with the upper side of the structural element, the other with the lower.

All components of the hard drive are enclosed in an aluminum case, which protects fragile parts from dust and reduces the risk of mechanical damage.

An important part of a hard drive is the control electronics. It regulates the spindle rotation speed, head positioning, redirects computer commands to the hard drive mechanics and transmits the read data to the system. In addition, the hard drive electronics include buffer memory, which allows you to optimize work hard disk: computer requests are accumulated in the device’s memory, and the heads carry them out, moving smoothly over the platters, rather than jerking for each PC task.

If you still don’t quite understand how a hard drive for a computer works, a photo will make the information presented more clear.

How it works

When you turn on the computer, current is supplied to the hard drive and the motor starts, spinning the platters. A “yoke” on which the magnetic heads are located is brought out from the parking area and extended to the working area (the heads are located above the plates). Please note: these elements never touch the plates (mechanical contact inevitably leads to wear of the coating), but hover above them a few microns.

Now the hard drive is ready for work - writing or reading information. How do these processes occur? Data received from PC electronic system converts the hard drive into current supplied to the magnetic heads. Once above the unoccupied areas of the plates, the heads magnetize their surface in such a way that different microscopic areas of the disk (domains) have different magnetization vectors (location of magnetic poles), forming logical zeros and ones. Thus, the information is stored in a computer-readable form.

The reading process is similar. There is an area where it is stored necessary information, the magnetic field is converted into electronic pulses, which are sent to the computer and there interpreted in a certain way by the operating system.

Location of information

The necessary data is written to the hard drive in a circle, and simultaneously on all plates. Each circle is called a track. The tracks of different platters, which the heads write at the same time, form a cylinder. When formatted, they are divided into blocks or sectors of a certain size.

However, when working with a computer, the user sees neither tracks nor cylinders. For operating system all hard The disk is a single data storage array. For convenience, you can create logical partitions hard drive of any size. It is believed that the first one will correspond to the outer, fastest region of the disk. This is where it's best to install operating system.

Modern SATA interface

Connecting the hard drive to the computer is carried out in two directions: data exchange and power supply. Almost the only one used today in personal computers The interface for exchanging information between a computer and a hard drive is the SATA (Serial ATA) protocol.

There are three revisions (generations) of it. SATA I is obsolete and not used. SATA II can provide data transfer speeds of up to 300 MB per second. This is more than enough for magnetic hard drives - for now it is simply impossible to achieve such read and write speeds on magnetic plates, so it's big throughput no tires needed.

It's another matter if you plan to use an SSD hard drive for your computer. The write speed to a flash drive can reach 500 MB/sec. Such devices usually support new standard SATA III with data transfer speeds up to 600 Mb/s.

SATA connectors of different revisions are the same, so it is quite possible to connect a SATA III device to a computer that supports SATA I or vice versa. But the data exchange speed will not exceed that available for the slower of the paired devices.

How to connect a hard drive to a computer

Installing a hard drive in a PC is not challenging task and will not require special knowledge (or equipment more complicated than a screwdriver). Attention! All manipulations inside the computer and laptop are performed with the power turned off!

So, first of all, you need to remove the case wall, install the hard drive in the space provided for it and secure it on the sides with four screws. Then you should connect the cable (15 pins) from the power supply. Although food hard drive SATA is carried out through a special connector; if it is not available, you can use a Molex (4 pins) - SATA (15 pins) adapter.

Next, connect the SATA cable (7 pins) to the hard drive and the connector on the motherboard. Actually, that’s all: close the case and turn on the computer. In most cases, no special drivers or settings are required.

The hard drive is connected to the laptop in the same way. If, when opening the case, the manufacturer's seals are damaged, this may be grounds for refusal of approval. warranty repairs! With the caveat, of course, that you can usually install only one hard drive in a laptop. Therefore, after replacing old tough The new disk will have to create partitions on it and install the operating system.

Main characteristics of hard drives

PC user choosing new hard drive for a computer or laptop? It is important to know various characteristics devices that affect its consumer properties.

First of all, hard drives are available in two sizes: 2.5 and 3.5 inches. The former are intended for use in laptops, the latter - in PCs. Winchester for portable device if necessary, can be installed using a special adapter housing.

The most important consumer characteristic of hard disk is its capacity. When purchasing, you must keep in mind that the usable capacity of the drive is always less than the declared one. For the sake of a beautiful number on the label, the manufacturer resorts to various tricks: it indicates data based on the formula 1 GB = 1 billion bytes (rounded in its favor by about 7%), includes in the total capacity a service area that cannot be used to store information.

The operating speed is influenced by several characteristics: spindle speed, access time, size buffer memory. Let's look at them in more detail.

Rotation speed is indicated in revolutions per minute. The most common devices are 5400 rpm (laptops), 7200 rpm (computers), 10000 rpm (servers).

The random access time shows how quickly the magnetic head can move to the specified sector. Measured in milliseconds (on average 7-11ms), the fewer, the better.

Very important parameter is the size of the buffer memory (cache). Big cache- this and best speed, and greater durability of the device.

Durability is characterized by mean time between failures, measured in hours. However, if the packaging says 1,000,000 hours, this does not mean that the hard drive will actually last a hundred years. But, comparing the indicators different models, you can get some idea of ​​their quality based on this indicator.

The noise level of a hard drive is measured in decibels. As a rule, than faster device, the noisier it is and the more energy it consumes.

Selecting a hard drive

Based on knowledge characteristics of hard disks, it won’t be difficult to figure out how to choose a hard drive for your computer.

First of all, you need to decide on a suitable drive size. It is possible to use laptop hard drives in a PC, but it is not advisable: for the same money you will get a device of lower capacity and speed. However, 2.5-inch drives are less noisy and consume less energy than their 3.5-inch “colleagues”.

With storage capacity, everything is also simple: the more, the better (and the cheaper per gigabyte). The only limiter here is the buyer’s wallet.

It’s hardly worth overpaying for high-speed performance for a home or office computer: the difference in system performance will be barely noticeable, but the price and noise of the computer will be very noticeable. And for a laptop it’s even more fast discharge batteries.

What you shouldn't skimp on is buffer memory. From models of the same capacity, you should choose the one with the largest cache.

Noise level matters for home computer, which is intended to be used at night in a room where other people sleep, or for an office where many machines are installed. In such cases, it would be wise to sacrifice performance for the sake of comfort. Noise, especially at night, is harmful to health.

Software check

Checking a hard drive can be performed at different stages of its operation and for different purposes. After purchasing a hard drive, the user can check the real speed performance of the new drive. Or after a while, make sure that they have not worsened. For these purposes you can use a simple program HD Speed. After completing a given number of reads and writes, it will show you how fast your hard drive is actually running.

The hard drive program HDTune can do the same and much more. For the advanced user, it provides a whole range of different performance tests, as well as full information about the hard drive, including data from thermal sensors. In addition, HD Tune can check the surface of the hard drive for the presence of damaged sectors (“bad sectors”).

However, a specialized tool will be better able to handle the latter task. For example, HDD Scan. This free utility shows in a visual form all the data related to the “health” of the hard drive. Checking the hard drive for "badness" can be performed in three different modes.

If there are bad sectors, and especially if there are a lot of them or problems arise when loading the operating system and accessing some files, then you should use the heavy artillery. Free utility Victoria from a Belarusian developer can do everything that HDD Scan can, but its main advantage is that it can “treat” bad sectors and even, in some cases, recover data from them.

An inexperienced user will be put off by the need to boot into DOS and the interface corresponding to an archaic operating system. But this program is for more or less experienced users. Moreover, carelessly pressing keys in order to “see what happens” can result in the complete and final loss of all data on the hard drive. So, if you are using a program for a Victoria hard drive, you should perform only those actions whose consequences you are clearly aware of.

When Victoria finds bad sector, it makes multiple attempts to read information from it and, if it succeeds, writes the result to another, working section. In any case, "bad" receives the appropriate label, and more computer will not contact him. In essence, what is done is the same as when completely formatting a disk, but the data is not erased.

external HDs

A convenient device for storing information is external hard drive. If the size of modern flash drives rarely exceeds tens of gigabytes, then the capacity external hard disks are measured in terabytes.

Like flash drive manufacturers, external hard drive developers pay attention to great attention design. You can purchase a drive in a plastic case of any color, in a stylish aluminum or rubberized waterproof case.

Whatever the shell, inside it will be located one of the well-known hard drives: 2.5 or 3.5 inches. The former are more portable and often do not require additional sources electricity. The latter have a larger volume, but they need to be connected to an outlet via the included power supply. There are models on the market where several hard drives are housed in one case, which allows you to create an array with a capacity of up to 6 TB.

The bottleneck of external drives is low bandwidth compared to SATA. external interfaces, so the question “how to connect a hard drive” for this category of devices is by no means idle.

The usual USB 2 is only suitable for automatic background backups that do not require user intervention. USB 3 or Apple Thunderbolt allows you to record a movie in HD quality in a reasonable amount of time. But the rare eSATA (external SATA), operating at SATA I speed, makes it possible to install on external drive operating system, programs and quite comfortable working with them.

If an external hard drive for a computer is just a data storage and sometimes - large flash drive, then for a laptop where the increase disk space- a non-trivial task, fast and capacious external hard The disc is just a godsend.

SSD drives

IN last years Devices of a fundamentally new type are gaining popularity - SSD (Solis State Disc), solid state drives. They are based not on rotating magnetic plates, but on flash memory. Such devices are also called hard drives due to inertia.

What are the advantages of such drives? The main advantage is speed. Random reading and writing on them are many times faster than on the best server magnetic hard drives. This is especially noticeable when loading the operating system and launching “heavy” applications: Windows takes a few seconds to load instead of a couple of minutes!

Other important advantages (especially in relation to laptops) include quietness, low power consumption and greater resistance to shock and shock than magnetic hard drives.

There are no advantages without disadvantages. If budget magnetic disks have long exceeded the terabyte level, then for the same money you won’t be able to buy an SSD larger than 120 GB. In addition, solid-state drives do not have a very long read/write cycle life - tens of times less than that of conventional hard drives.

From this we can conclude that it makes sense to buy an SSD hard drive for a computer in order to install an operating system and applications on it. And for a partition with user files (especially multimedia), it is advisable to have a second disk made using traditional magnetic technology.

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╔═───────────────════════───────────────═╗ │ "WINCHESTER" ON SCORPION "E ││ FOR │ │ "DUMMIES" │ ╚═──────────────────────────────────────═╝ (c) Yuri BuravtsovWhat is "Winchester"and what is it for?These devices are similar in one way to the computers themselves in which they are installed. People don't realize how much they need them until they start using them. Suddenly it turns out that these devices arevitally necessary, and this need grows every day of their operation. After working with a hard drive, everyone wonders how you can do without it. It helps to increase the speed of everyday work of loading certain programs. Due to the fact that it allows you to organize work with information very quickly, significantly increasing system performance, it seems that the remaining components of the computer are improving their characteristics. For me, as a member of the editorial staff, a hard drive was simply vital for working with huge amounts of information. Before using it, I tinkered with floppy disks, as once upon a time - with audio cassettes, where they were stored for ZX Spectrum... Do you remember this time? How does this make you feel? What is a hard drive? Let's look at it in more detail. Unlike a floppy disk drive, the read/write heads of a hard drive do not come into contact with the working surfaces of the disk. This is explained by the fact that the hard drive constantly rotates at a speed of 3600 rpm and higher, due to which it achieves high speed exchange of information. But still, the heads are located at a distance of several microns from the working surfaces of the disk. Therefore, the space in the exchange zone must be mechanically clean. What does it mean? Compared to the distance between the head and the surface, any speck of dust seems like a boulder that can change the direction of the head. And this, in turn, can lead to the so-called fall heads. In this case, the magnetic coating of the disk acquires a deep groove. Naturally, at this point the exchange of information with the computer is no longer possible.Therefore everything hard disks are hermetically sealed with metal casings, and the internal space of the disk is filled with inert gas. I mentioned the concept "working surfaces" "ti". What does it mean? The fact is that modern hard drives are usually equipped with several disks(pancakes) , located one above the other. They all rotate on the same axis at the same speed. Several disks significantly increase the capacity of the entire hard drive (this is clear by definition). When the hard drive is not working, the read/write heads are pressed against the surfaces, and when the disk rotates, an air flow is created, which seems to lift the heads. Therefore, when the hard drive starts or stops, the magnetic layer of the disk may be damaged. Old models of hard drives needed to be started before turning off the power. special program , which allocated heads to unused disk space, this process is called allows you not to be afraid of accidental falls of the heads, because Now the coatings are so strong that the head simply bounces off the disk as soon as it falls on it. In the worst case, only one sector will be knocked out... The closer the head is to the disk, the more reliably it reads information, so in this way an increase in read/write density is also achieved. There are several types of hard drive interfaces. The two most common are: . IDE (Integration Drive Electronic) and SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) SCSI interface allows you to work faster with data arrays than the IDE, so it is more expensive. At the same time, there is a type of IDE - Enchanted IDE is an advanced integrated disk management electronics that allows the use of drives larger than 500 MB (the IDE interface did not allow this). At the moment the interface E-IDEis the most common.When buying a hard drive, you should, so to speak, “look into the future”... What does this mean? This means that it is best to buy something that is reliable and has a sufficiently large capacity. After all, the hard drive will be useful in the future not only on the Spectrum, but also on other machines... Moreover, memory, as well as money, can never be too much. I have a hard drive with a capacity of 1.08 GB (gigabytes), of which exactly a third is already in use...By the way, a few words about disk capacity. Izgo-RAM device readersmelt that there are 1024 bytes in a kilobyte, and in me-GB - 1024 kilobytes. This oneWe consider a “binary” megabyte to be a real one.current megabyte. On the other hand, productionHard drive manufacturers believe that mega-a byte is a million bytes. Therefore, tiredlimit updated by IDE standard to 528MBytes in the system of hard drive manufacturersdisks equals 504 “real” megabytesthere. Isn't that why hard drives look more than they actually are? So keep that in mind. About the models. The most acceptable from a performance point of view is Western Digital and Seagate, compactness - Seagate, cost - Conner... In general, prices for hard drives are constantly falling, because... More and more new hard drives are being developed with larger capacity

. Three or four years ago, hard drives with a capacity of 540 MB were a sensation, but now the figure

9.1 GB A type of hard disk for computers, which, together with the read-write heads, is sealed in an airtight container that prevents dust from entering. First manufactured by IBM in 1973, it is now used by many manufacturers, especially in microcomputers.

Business. Dictionary. - M.: "INFRA-M", Publishing House "Ves Mir". Graham Betts, Barry Brindley, S. Williams and others. General editor: Ph.D. Osadchaya I.M.. 1998 .

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