The textbook consists of two sections: theoretical and practical. The theoretical part of the textbook outlines the foundations of modern computer science as a complex scientific and technical discipline, including the study of the structure and general properties of information and information processes, general principles construction of computing devices, issues of organization and functioning of information and computer networks are considered, computer security, the key concepts of algorithmization and programming, databases and DBMS are presented. To control the acquired theoretical knowledge, self-testing questions and tests are offered. The practical part covers algorithms for basic actions when working with a word processor Microsoft Word, tabular Microsoft editor Excel, a program for creating Microsoft Power Point presentations, archiving programs and anti-virus programs. To consolidate the completed practical course, at the end of each section it is proposed to complete independent work.

Book:

In accordance with the element base and level of software development, four real generations of computers are distinguished: a brief description of which are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

The first generation computers had a low speed of several tens of thousands of ops/sec. Ferrite cores were used as internal memory.

The main disadvantage of these computers is the mismatch between the performance of the internal memory and the ALU and control unit due to different element bases. The overall performance was determined by the slower component - the internal memory - and reduced the overall effect. Already in the first generation computers, attempts were made to eliminate this drawback by asynchronizing the operation of devices and introducing output buffering when transmitted information is “flushed” into the buffer, freeing the device for further work(principle of autonomy). Thus, its own memory was used to operate the I/O devices.

A significant functional limitation of the first generation computer was its focus on performing arithmetic operations. When trying to adapt them to analysis tasks, they turned out to be ineffective.

There were no programming languages ​​as such yet, and programmers used machine instructions or assemblers to code their algorithms. This complicated and delayed the programming process. By the end of the 50s, programming tools were undergoing fundamental changes: a transition was made to automation of programming using universal languages ​​and libraries of standard programs. The use of universal languages ​​led to the emergence of translators.

The programs were executed task by task, i.e. the operator had to monitor the progress of solving the problem and, when the end was reached, initiate the execution of the next task.

The beginning of the modern era of computer use in our country dates back to 1950, when at the Institute of Electrical Engineering of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR under the leadership of S.A. Lebedev created the first domestic computer called MESM - Small Electronic Calculating Machine. During the first stage of development of funds computer technology A number of computers have been created in our country: BESM, Strela, Ural, M-2.

The second generation of computers is the transition to a transistor element base, the emergence of the first mini-computers.

Receives further development the principle of autonomy - it is already implemented at the level of individual devices, which is expressed in their modular structure. I/O devices are equipped with their own control units (called controllers), which made it possible to free the central control unit from managing I/O operations.

Improvement and reduction in the cost of computers have led to a reduction in the specific cost of computer time and computing resources in the total cost of an automated solution to a data processing problem, at the same time, the costs of program development (i.e. programming) almost did not decrease, and in some cases tended to grow. Thus, there was a trend towards effective programming, which began to be realized in the second generation of computers and is being developed to the present day.

The development begins on the basis of libraries of standard programs of integrated systems that have the property of portability, that is, functioning on computers of different brands. The most frequently used software tools are allocated in the software for solving problems of a certain class.

The technology for executing programs on a computer is being improved: special software tools are being created - system software.

The purpose of creating system software is to speed up and simplify the processor's transition from one task to another. The first systems appeared batch processing, which simply automated the launch of one program after another and thereby increased the processor load factor. Batch processing systems were the prototype of modern operating systems; they became the first system programs designed to manage the computing process. During the implementation of batch processing systems, a formalized task control language was developed, with the help of which the programmer informed the system and the operator what work he wanted to perform on the computer. A collection of several tasks, usually in the form of a deck of punched cards, is called a task package. This element is still alive: the so-called MS DOS batch (or command) files are nothing more than packages of tasks (the extension in their name bat is an abbreviation for the English word batch, which means package).

Second generation domestic computers include “Promin”, “Minsk”, “Hrazdan”, “Mir”.

In the 70s, third-generation computers emerged and developed. In our country these are ES Computers, ASVT, SM Computers. This stage– transition to an integrated element base and the creation of multi-machine systems, since it was no longer possible to achieve a significant increase in speed on the basis of a single computer. Therefore, computers of this generation were created on the basis of the principle of unification, which made it possible to integrate arbitrary computing systems in various fields of activity.

The expansion of the functionality of computers has increased the scope of their application, which has caused an increase in the volume of processed information and posed the task of storing data in special databases and maintaining them. This is how the first database management systems - DBMS - appeared.

The forms of computer use have changed: the introduction of remote terminals (displays) has made it possible to widely and effectively introduce time-sharing mode and thereby bring the computer closer to the user and expand the range of tasks to be solved.

Ensuring a time-sharing regime allowed the new kind operating systems that support multiprogramming. Multiprogramming is a way of organizing a computing process in which several programs are alternately executed on one processor. While one program is performing an I/O operation, the processor is not idle, as was the case when executing programs sequentially (single-program mode), but is executing another program (multi-program mode). In this case, each program is loaded into its own section of internal memory, called a partition. Multiprogramming is aimed at creating for each individual user the illusion of sole use of the computer, therefore such OS were interactive in nature, when the user solved his problems in the process of dialogue with the computer.

We can distinguish \(5\) main generations of computers. But division computer equipment for generations - very conditional.

I generation of computers: computers designed in \(1946\)-\(1955\)

1. Element base: electron vacuum tubes.
2. Connection of elements: suspended installation with wires.
3. Dimensions: The computer is made in the form of huge cabinets.

These computers were huge, clunky, and too expensive machines to purchase. large corporations and governments.

The lamps consumed a large amount of electricity and generated a lot of heat.
4. Performance: \(10-20\) thousand operations per second.
5. Operation: difficult due to frequent failure of electron vacuum tubes.
6. Programming: machine codes. In this case, you need to know all the machine commands, binary representation, and computer architecture. Mostly mathematicians and programmers were employed. Computer maintenance required high professionalism from the personnel.
7. RAM: up to \(2\) KB.
8. Data was entered and output using punched cards and punched tapes.

II generation of computers: computers designed in \(1955\)-\(1965\)

In \(1948\) John Bardeen, William Shockley, Walter Brattain invented the transistor, for the invention of the transistor they received the Nobel Prize in \(1956\)

The \(1\) transistor replaced \(40\) electron tubes and was much cheaper and more reliable.

In \(1958\) the M-20 machine was created, which performed \(20\) thousand operations per second - the most powerful computer \(50s\) in Europe.

In \(1963\) a fellow at the Stanford Research Center Douglas Engelbart demonstrated the work of the first mouse.

1. Element base: semiconductor elements(transistors, diodes).
2. Connection of elements: printed circuit boards and hanging installation.

3. Dimensions: The computer is made in the form of similar racks, slightly taller than human height, but a special computer room was required for placement.
4. Performance: \(100-500\) thousand operations per second.
5. Operation: computer centers with a special staff of service personnel, a new specialty has appeared - computer's operator.
6. Programming: in algorithmic languages, the emergence of the first operating systems.
7. RAM: \(2-32\) KB.
8. The principle of time sharing has been introduced - combining the operation of different devices in time.

9. Disadvantage: software incompatibility.

Already starting from the second generation, machines began to be divided into large, medium and small based on size, cost, and computing capabilities.

Thus, small domestic cars of the second generation (“ Nairi", "Hrazdan", "Peace" etc.) were quite accessible to every university at the end of the 1960s, while the above-mentioned BESM-6 had professional indicators (and cost) \(2-3\) orders of magnitude higher.

III generation of computers: computers designed in \(1965\)-\(1975\)

In \(1958\) Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce, independently of each other, invent integrated circuit(IS).

In \(1961\) the first integrated circuit made on a silicon wafer went on sale.

In \(1965\) the production of the third generation family of machines IBM-360 (USA) began. The models had a single command system and differed from each other in the amount of RAM and performance.

In \(1967\) the production of BESM began - 6 (\(1\) million operations in \(1\) s) and "Elbrus" (\(10\) million operations in \(1\) s) .

In 1969, IBM separated the concepts of hardware and software. The company started selling software separate from hardware, marking the beginning of the software industry.

\(29\) October \(1969\) the work of the very first global military computer network ARPANet, connecting research laboratories throughout the United States.

Pay attention!

In \(1971\) the first microprocessor was created by the company Intel. On \(1\) The crystal formed \(2250\) transistors.

1. Element base: integrated circuits.

3. Dimensions: The computer is made in the form of similar racks.
4. Performance: \(1-10\) million operations per second.
5. Operation: computer centers, display classes, new specialty - system programmer.
6. Programming: algorithmic languages, operating systems.
7. RAM: \(64\) KB.

As we moved from the first to the third generation, programming capabilities changed radically. Writing programs in machine code for first-generation machines (and a little simpler in Assembly) for most second-generation machines is an activity that the vast majority of modern programmers become familiar with when studying at a university.

The emergence of procedural languages high level and translators from them was the first step towards a radical expansion of the circle of programmers. Scientists and engineers began to write programs themselves to solve their problems.

Already in the third generation, large unified series of computers appeared. For large and medium-sized machines in the US, this is primarily the IBM 360/370 family. In the USSR, the \(70\)s and \(80\)s were the time of the creation of unified series: ES (unified system) of computers (large and medium-sized machines), SM (system of small) computers and " Electronics» ( series microcomputer).

They were based on American prototypes from IBM and DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation). Dozens of computer models were created and released, differing in purpose and performance. Their production was practically discontinued in the early \(90\)s.

IV generation of computers: computers designed from \(1975\) to the beginning of the \(90\)s

In \(1975\) IBM was the first to begin industrial production of laser printers.

In \(1976\) IBM creates the first inkjet printer.

In \(1976\) the first personal computer was created.

Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak organized an enterprise for the production of personal computers " Apple», intended for a wide range of non-professional users. \(Apple 1\) was sold at a very interesting price - \(666.66\) dollars. In ten months, we managed to sell about two hundred sets.

In \(1976\) the first floppy disk with a diameter of \(5.25\) inches appeared.

In \(1982\) IBM began producing IBM PC computers with Intel processor 8088, which laid down the principles open architecture, thanks to which each computer can be assembled as if from cubes, taking into account available funds and with the possibility of subsequent replacement of blocks and adding new ones.

In \(1988\) the first worm virus was created to infect email.

In \(1993\) the production of IBM PC computers with a Pentium processor began.

1. Element base: large integrated circuits (LSI).
2. Connection of elements: printed circuit boards.
3. Dimensions: compact computers, laptops.
4. Performance: \(10-100\) million operations per second.
5. Operation: multi-processor and multi-machine systems, any computer users.
6. Programming: databases and data banks.
7. RAM: \(2-5\) MB.
8. Telecommunication data processing, integration into computer networks.

V generation of computers: developments since the \(90\)s of the twentieth century

The element base is ultra-large-scale integrated circuits (VLSI) using optoelectronic principles (lasers, holography).

An electronic computer is a set of hardware and software designed to automate the preparation and solution of user problems. The user is understood as a person in whose interests data is processed on a computer. Customers of computing work, programmers, and operators can act as users. As a rule?, the time for preparing problems is many times longer than the time for solving them.

According to the stages of creation and the element base used, computers are conventionally divided into generations:

1st generation, 50s: Computers based on electron vacuum tubes;

2nd generation, 60s: Computers based on discrete semiconductor devices (transistors);

3rd generation, 70s: Semiconductor computers integrated circuits with a low and medium degree of integration (hundreds, thousands of transistors in one package);

4th generation, 80s: Computers based on large-scale and ultra-large-scale integrated circuits-microprocessors (tens of thousands - millions of transistors in one chip);

5th generation, 90s: Computers with many dozens of parallel working microprocessors, allowing to build effective knowledge processing systems; Computers on ultra-complex microprocessors with a parallel-vector structure, simultaneously executing dozens of sequential program commands;

6th and subsequent generations: optoelectronic computers with massive parallelism and neural structure - with distributed network a large number (tens of thousands) of simple microprocessors that model the architecture of neural biological systems.

Each subsequent generation of computers has significantly better characteristics compared to the previous one. Thus, computer performance and the capacity of all storage devices increase, as a rule, by more than an order of magnitude.

The variety of modern computers is very large. But their structures are based on general logical principles that make it possible to distinguish the following main devices in any computer:

memory (storage device, memory), consisting of renumbered cells;


a processor including a control unit (CU) and an arithmetic-logical unit (ALU);


input device;


output device.


These devices are connected by communication channels through which information is transmitted.


Memory functions:


receiving information from other devices;


remembering information;


– provision of information on request to other devices of the machine.


Processor functions:


data processing by given program by performing arithmetic and logical operations;


software control of the operation of computer devices.





Rice. 1. General scheme computer


The part of the processor that executes instructions is called an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and the other part that performs device control functions is called a control unit (CU).


Usually these two devices are distinguished purely conditionally; they are not structurally separated.


The processor contains a number of specialized additional memory cells called registers. The register performs the function of short-term storage of a number or command.


The first person to formulate the basic principles of the functioning of universal computing devices, i.e. computers, was the famous mathematician John von Neumann.


First of all, modern computer must have the following devices:


an arithmetic-logical device that performs arithmetic and logical operations;


a control device that organizes the process of program execution;


• a storage device, or memory for storing programs and data;
  

  external devices for input/output of information
  

  The first electronic computers (computers) appeared only 50 years ago. During this time, microelectronics, computer technology and the entire computer science industry have become one of the main components of global scientific and technological progress. The influence of computer technology on all areas of human activity continues to expand in breadth and depth. Currently, computers are used not only to perform complex calculations, but also in the management of production processes, in education, healthcare, ecology, etc. This is explained by the fact that computers are capable of processing any type of information: numerical, text, tabular, graphic, video, audio.
  

  An electronic computer is a set of hardware and software designed to automate the preparation and solution of user problems. The user is understood as a person in whose interests data is processed on a computer. Customers of computing work, programmers, and operators can act as users. As a rule, the time for preparing problems is many times longer than the time for solving them.
  

  User requirements for performing computational work are satisfied by special selection and configuration of hardware and software. Typically, these tools are interconnected and combined into one structure.
  

  Structure- a set of elements and their connections. There are structures of technical, software and hardware-software tools. When choosing a computer to solve their problems, the user is interested in the functionality of technical and software modules(how quickly a problem can be solved, how suitable the computer is for solving a given range of problems, what program services are available on the computer, the capabilities of the interactive mode, the cost of preparing and solving problems, etc.). In this case, the user is not interested in the specific technical and software implementation of individual modules, but in more general issues of the possibility of organizing calculations. The latter is included in the concept of computer architecture, the content of which is quite extensive.
  

  Computer architecture is a multi-level hierarchy of hardware and software from which a computer is built. Each level allows for multiple construction and application. The specific implementation of the levels determines the features of the structural design of the computer. Subsequent sections of the textbook discuss these issues in detail.
  

  Various categories of computer specialists are engaged in detailing the architectural and structural design of a computer. Circuit engineers design individual technical devices and develop methods for interfacing them with each other. System programmers create hardware control programs, information interaction between levels, organization of the computing process. Application programmers develop higher-level software packages that provide user interaction with computers and the necessary services when solving their problems.
  

  The user himself is usually interested in more general questions concerning his interaction with the computer (human-machine interface), starting with the following groups of computer characteristics that determine its structure:
  

  – technical and performance characteristics Computers (speed and performance, indicators of reliability, reliability, accuracy, operational and external memory, dimensions, cost of hardware and software, operating features, etc.);
  

  – characteristics and composition functional modules basic computer configuration; the possibility of expanding the composition of hardware and software; possibility of changing the structure;
  

  – composition of computer software and services (operating system or environment, packages application programs, programming automation tools).
  

  One of the most important characteristics of a computer is its speed, which is characterized by the number of commands executed by the computer in one second. Since computer commands include operations that vary in execution duration and in the probability of their use, it makes sense to characterize it either by the average speed of the computer, or by the maximum speed (for the “shortest” operations of the “register-to-register” type). Modern computers have very high performance characteristics, measured in tens and hundreds of millions of operations per second. For example, a microprocessor jointly produced by Intel and Hewlett-Packard (code P7) is expected to appear in the near future, the speed of which should reach a billion operations per second.
  

  Real or effective performance, provided by a computer, is significantly lower, and it can vary greatly depending on the class of problems being solved. Performance comparison various types Computers that differ sharply from each other in their characteristics do not provide reliable estimates. Therefore, very often, instead of a performance characteristic, the associated performance characteristic is used - the amount of work carried out by a computer per unit of time. For example, you can define this parameter by the number of tasks performed in a certain time. However, comparison of different types of computers based on this characteristic can cause difficulties. Since assessing the performance of various computers is important practical task, although this formulation of the question is also not entirely correct, relative performance characteristics have been proposed for use. For example, Intel company to evaluate processors, it proposed a test called the iCOMP index (Intel Comparative Microprocessor Performance). When determining it, four main aspects of performance are taken into account: working with integer numbers, floating point, graphics and video. Data has 16- and 32-bit representation. Each of the eight parameters participates in the calculation with its own weighting coefficient, determined by the average ratio between these operations in real problems.
  

  Another important characteristic of a computer is storage capacity. Memory capacity is measured by the number of structural units of information that can simultaneously be in memory. This indicator allows you to determine what set of programs and data can be simultaneously placed in memory.
  

  The smallest structural unit of information is a bit - one binary digit. As a rule, memory capacity is measured in larger units of measurement - bytes (a byte is equal to eight bits). The following units of measurement are 1 KB = 210 1024 bytes, 1 MB = 210 KB = 220 bytes, 1 GB = 210 MB = 2 KB = 230 bytes.
  

  Typically, the capacity of RAM and the capacity of external memory are characterized separately. Currently, personal computers can have a RAM capacity of 4-32 MB and even more. This indicator is very important for determining which software packages and their applications can be processed simultaneously in the machine.
  

  External memory capacity depends on the media type. Thus, the capacity of one floppy disk is 0.3-3 MB, depending on the type of drive and the characteristics of the floppy disks. Hard capacity The disk capacity can reach several GB, the capacity of a compact disc (CD ROM) can be hundreds of MB (640 MB and above), etc. The capacity of external memory characterizes the volume of software and individual software products that can be installed on a computer. For example, to install an operating system Windows environment 95 volume required hard memory disk more than 100 MB and at least 8-16 MB of computer RAM.
  

  Reliability- this is the ability of a computer, under certain conditions, to perform the required functions within a given period of time (ISO standard (International Organization of Standards) 23 82/14-78).
  

  The high reliability of a computer is built into the process of its production. The transition to a new element base - ultra-large-scale integrated circuits (VLSI) sharply reduces the number of integrated circuits used, and therefore the number of their connections to each other. The layout of the computer and provision of the required operating modes (cooling, dust protection) are well thought out. The modular design principle makes it easy to check and monitor the operation of all devices, diagnose and troubleshoot problems.
  

  Accuracy- the ability to distinguish between almost equal values ​​(ISO standard - 2382/2-76). The accuracy of obtaining processing results is mainly determined by the bit capacity of the computer, as well as the structural units used to represent information (byte, word, double word).
  

  In many computer applications, great precision is not required, for example, when processing texts and documents, or when controlling technological processes. In this case, it is enough to use 8, 16-bit binary codes.
  

  When performing complex calculations, it is necessary to use a higher bit depth (32, 64, or even more). Therefore, all modern computers have the ability to work with 16- and 32-bit machine words. With the help of high-level language programming tools, this range can be increased several times, which makes it possible to achieve very high accuracy.
  

  Credibility- the property of information to be correctly perceived. Reliability is characterized by the likelihood of obtaining error-free results. The specified level of reliability is ensured by hardware and software control tools of the computer itself. Methods for monitoring reliability are possible by solving reference problems and repeating calculations. In especially critical cases, control decisions are carried out on other computers and the results are compared.
  

  2. Graphic editor for the Windows operating system
  

  Paint is the simplest graphics editor built into the Windows operating system and designed for creating and editing raster graphics mainly Windows format(BMP) and GIF formats, JPEG. It is suitable for creating simple graphic illustrations: diagrams, diagrams and graphs that can be embedded, for example, in text documents. In addition, the editor allows you to enter texts using the Windows font set.
  

  The Paint graphic editor is focused on the process of “drawing” an image and combining ready-made fragments, and is not intended for serious graphic work, for example, technical design (parts, cars, houses), for editing photo illustrations, etc.
  

  Main features of the editor:
  

  simultaneous work with only one file;
  

  drawing straight and curved lines of various thicknesses and colors;
  

  using brushes various shapes, width and color;
  

  construction of various shapes - rectangles, polygons, ovals, ellipses - shaded and unshaded;
  

  placing text on a drawing;
  

  use of transformations - rotations, reflections, stretching and skew.
  

  To launch the Paint graphic editor, you must run: Start _
  Programs ) Standard )Graphic editor Paint. After launch, the Paint graphic editor window looks like shown in 1.
  

  Elements of the Paint editor window:
  

  1 – title line (picture file name and then editor name);
  

  2 – menu bar (commands File, Edit, View, Drawing, Palette And Reference);
  

  
  

  Rice. 1. Paint graphic editor window
  

  3 — toolbar;
  

  4 — color palette;
  

  5 — line width selection field;
  

  6 - horizontal and vertical stripes scroll;
  

  7 - working field (work area).
  

  Manage work graphically Paint editor possible by selecting commands from menus and toolbar icons. There are commands that can be called only through the menu, or only through the toolbar.
  

  Basic actions with a drawing
  

  To create a new drawing, use the following sequence: File _
  Create. After this, a white rectangle will appear in the working area of ​​the window, against which they work.
  

  To change the standard size of the picture, place the cursor in the lower right corner of the white rectangle (the cursor will change its appearance to two diagonal arrows) and move the cursor while holding down the left mouse button to a new location. Another way to set the size of the picture is by selecting from the menu item Drawing point Attributes and entering into the fields Width And Height the required values. It is also possible to choose Units And Type color palette (color or black and white). It should be noted that if the current dimensions of the picture exceed the new dimensions, then the picture is cropped along the right and bottom edges. If the new dimensions are larger than the current dimensions, then the added area receives the current background color.
  

  To save a drawing, use the sequence File _
  Save (Save as). In this case, you need to specify the file name, select the file type (BMP, JPG or GIF) and the directory to save. Saving is performed by selecting the action with the mouse Save.
  

  If a drawing that was previously in the work area was not saved, but the command was given to close the editor, the question will be asked: Save changes to file...? with answer options Yes, No And Cancel. Select an option Cancel will cancel the exit command and return to editing the drawing.
  

  For removing Total drawn from the work area use menu items Drawing _ Clear.
  

  To load a picture from disk, use the sequence File _ Open. Then you need to select the file location on the disk (directory), file type, and file name from the list. The action is confirmed by pressing the button Open.
  

  Toolbar
  

  To draw, paint, change colors, write, erase, etc. in Paint you need to select the desired tool. To do this, use the toolbar (Fig. 2). You need to click on the button with the right tool. After this, the selected button will be pressed, informing the user of the selected action. The mouse cursor will also change shape depending on your selection. Moving the cursor around the work area while holding down the left mouse button results in using the tool and changing the drawing. When the mouse button is released, the cursor simply moves (without changing the pattern).
  

  
  

  Rice. 2. Paint Toolbar
  

  (1) and Selection(2) – allow you to select part of a free-form pattern or the entire pattern for subsequent copying, deleting, etc.
  

  Eraser(3) - erasing part of the drawing. You can change the eraser size. The removed area of ​​the drawing will have the background color.
  

  Fill(4) - will allow you to paint with the selected color inner part arbitrary closed region. This requires clicking anywhere within the area. If the area is not closed, then the entire work area will be painted.
  

  Selecting a color from the one shown in the picture(5) – for subsequent drawing, for example, with a pencil or brush.
  

  Scale(6) – 1, 2, 6 or 8 – magnification of a fragment of the picture.
  

  Pencil(7) - when the left mouse button is pressed, a trace of the selected color with a thickness of 1 pixel is drawn behind the mouse cursor. When the left button is released, the trail is not drawn.
  

  Brush(8) - the action is similar to a pencil, but you can change the shape of the brush - circle, square, etc. and the thickness of the brush.
  

  Spray(9) - drawing using the effect of spray paint.
  

  Inscription(10) – allows you to type text using characters of the selected size, style and typeface in a rectangular window with an opaque or transparent background.
  

  Line(11) - designed for drawing a straight line (segment) of the selected color and thickness. The ends of the segment are the places where the left mouse button was pressed and released.
  

  Curve(12) - designed for drawing smooth curved lines connecting given points, selected color and thickness. First, a straight line is drawn, then with the left mouse button pressed, the curve can be bent twice in the selected directions.
  

  Rectangle(13) - used to draw filled and unfilled rectangles and squares. You need to click on the left mouse button, move the cursor to another point and release the button. Possible modes– “frame only”, “frame and fill”, “fill only”.
  

  Polygon(14) - drawing polygons. To draw the first side, you need to drag the cursor while holding down the button. To construct the following sides, you can click the mouse at the vertices of the polygon.
  

  Ellipse(15) - drawing an ellipse inscribed in the intended rectangle. You can select a mode (see rectangle).
  

  Rounded rectangle(16) - drawing a rectangle with rounded vertices.
  

  Editing a drawing
  

  Palette selection
  

  There are two ways to select a color.
  

  First, there is a color palette with 28 suggested colors (Figure 3). To select line and background colors, left-click above in the right color. Click to select a background color right click. The default main and background colors appear in the lower left corner of the Paint window.
  

  
  

  Rice. 3. Default colors and color palette
  

  Secondly, you can select a tool Color selection and click it in the place of the work area that is painted with the desired color.
  

  To change the palette, select the color you want to change. On the menu Palette select team Change
  palette. Click the button Define color, then change the color component values ​​using the RGB (red, green, blue) or HLS (hue, contrast, brightness) model. Click the buttons Add to set And OK.
  

  Converting a color drawing to black and white
  

  To perform a specified action in the menu Drawing select team Attributes, then select the Black and White palette option. Converting a drawing to black and white is irreversible. After returning to the color palette, only new objects can be colored.
  

  Reversing all colors of a design
  

  Produced by selecting from the menu Drawing teams Invert colors. Each color will be replaced with its inverse (white will become black, yellow will become blue, etc.).
  

  Inserting text into a drawing
  

  To insert text into a drawing, use the tool Inscription. To do this, click on the button in the toolbar. Clicking on the image will cause a rectangle (frame) to appear where you can enter text at the click location. A text cursor in the form of the letter I will appear at the input location. The frame shows the boundaries of the area of ​​​​the drawing where the text will be placed.
  

  If the text is long enough, it may not fit in the frame and the height of the frame will change. This is due to the fact that as you type, words automatically wrap to the next line when they reach the right border of the frame. As a result, the text may not be positioned correctly. Therefore, it is often necessary to specifically resize the frame. To do this, you need to place the cursor on the bold dots on the border of the frame, after which the cursor will change its appearance to “two arrows pointing in different directions.” By holding down the left mouse button, you can move the borders of the frame in a given direction.
  

  Text can be placed on a drawing in two modes. In the first mode, the text is painted over with the selected color, and its background color coincides with the main background color (the inscription is opaque, the text obscures the drawing, positioning itself on top of it). In the second case, the text is also painted over with the selected color, and the background is transparent (the text is placed on top of the picture). To switch modes, a special panel appears on the screen.
  

  You can use different fonts to type text. A font is a set of letters, numbers, symbols and punctuation marks of a specific appearance. Font characteristics: typeface (Times New Roman, Arial, Courier, etc.), size and style (regular, bold, italic, underlined). To change all font attributes, you can use the “Text Attributes Panel” (Fig. 4).
  

  Rice. 4. Text Attributes Panel
  

  You can enable or disable the appearance of the panel in the menu View by selecting a command Text attributes panel. The choice of font typeface, its size and encoding type is carried out from the drop-down lists. You can change the font before typing and while typing. To stop typing, you can either click the mouse on the picture or change the tool. After this, you cannot change the font for previously typed text.
  

  Changing the scale, viewing the picture
  

  Tool Scale serves to increase the display scale of the current drawing. You can select the magnification factor “1x”, “2x”, “6x” and “8x” or you can place the rectangle that appears over the area of ​​the picture that you want to view on an enlarged scale and click on the left mouse button. On an enlarged scale, you can work with the individual pixels that make up the image of the drawing. To restore the original image scale, select the coefficient “1x”.
  

  When changing the scale, the desired part of the drawing may disappear from the visible part of the Paint working window, because the new size of the drawing is several times larger than the size of the work area. You must scroll the window for the drawing to appear in the work area. To do this, use vertical and horizontal scroll bars on the right and bottom sides of the work area, respectively.
  

  You can also change the image scale through the menu View using the command Scale, Other. In this case, the scaling factor is specified as a percentage: 100%, 200%, 400%, 600% and 800%.
  

  When you select a scale of 400% or more, you have the option to enable a grid for more comfortable work with an image. This is done by selecting from the menu View teams Show grid.
  

  In the Paint graphics editor, there is a convenient way to view the entire drawing at normal scale. In this case, the window frame, all toolbars, palette and scroll bars will disappear from the screen. Only the edited drawing will be visible at normal scale in a full-screen image. In this mode, you can only view the image with editing prohibited. To view use the sequence View, View drawing. Return to edit mode by left-clicking.
  

  Working with a fragment of a drawing
  

  Tool Selecting a custom area allows you to select a fragment - an arbitrary area of ​​the drawing, limited by the constructed line. To do this, you need to activate the tool, and then, while holding down the left button, draw a closed area of ​​arbitrary shape. If the area is selected incorrectly, click the cursor anywhere other than the selected area.
  

  Tool Selection allows you to select an arbitrary rectangular area. To do this, you need to activate the tool, move the pointer to the place in the workspace where one of the corners of the selected fragment will be located, press the left mouse button and move it in the desired direction.
  

  There are two selection modes: transparent (the background color is excluded from the fragment) and opaque (the background color is retained in the fragment). To select a mode, a special temporary panel appears on the screen.
  

  You can move the selected fragment of a drawing to another location, create multiple copies of the fragment, or transfer it to another application.
  

  To move a fragment to another place, press the left button inside the selected area, then, without releasing it, drag the fragment to another place. If you hold down the key Ctrl, then a copy of the fragment will be transferred.
  

  You can perform other operations on a fragment of a drawing: resize, stretch, rotate, tilt and flip using menu commands Drawing.
  

  Using the clipboard
  

  The selected area can be placed in the buffer through the menu Edit. To do this, use the commands Copy or Cut. You can also put the fragment into a file with the command Copy to file.
  

  To insert ready-made fragments from the clipboard or file into a drawing, use the menu Edit and teams Insert or Paste from file respectively. In this case, the inserted fragment is initially located in the upper left corner of the screen and needs to be dragged to Right place with the mouse while the left button is pressed.
  

  Cancel a completed operation
  

  When editing drawings, you cannot change already completed elements graphic image- you can only delete them, or move them, or draw over them.
  

  What to do if the drawing was accidentally damaged? You can undo the last three changes you made to a drawing. To do this, use the menu Edit and team Cancel.
  

  If the operation was canceled by mistake, it can be restored using menu items Edit And Restore.
  

  Transform a drawing
  

  Using menu commands Drawing You can flip, stretch, compress, enlarge or tilt selected parts of the picture.
  

  Using the command Flip/Rotate You can flip the selected fragment relative to the vertical or horizontal axis. There are switches for this in the dialog box Flip from left to right, Flip from top to bottom And Rotate 90, 180 and 270 degrees.
  

  Using the command Stretch/Tilt You can stretch or tilt the selection vertically or horizontally. To do this, the dialog box has corresponding switches and input fields.
  

  Preview and print your drawing
  

  The drawing can be printed on a printer using the sequence File _ Seal. Due to differences between screen and printer resolutions, the same design may look different on screen and on paper. To check in advance what the drawing will look like when printed, use the menu File and team Preview. Next using the buttons Larger And Smaller You can select the appropriate image scale. To end the preview, click on the button Close.
  

  Using the menu File and team Page settings, you can change the page size, margin sizes, picture orientation, and printer used.
  

  Copying (“capturing”) an image from the screen
  

  To copy the contents of the entire screen to the clipboard, you must press the key Print Screen. To copy content to the clipboard active window- press the keys simultaneously Alt+Print Screen.
  

  To further work with the drawing, use in the menu Edit team Insert.
  

  Task 2
  

  Summary of changes in foreign currency deposits at a balance rate of 7.0% over a period of 5 years, initial deposit $1,400.
  

  To the financial department
  

  Collection agency
  

  LLC "Bakr", Krasnodar
  

  Nosov T.A.
  

  Summary
  

  on the topic: “Summary of changes in foreign currency deposits at the bank rate”
  

  Year

  Initial deposit amount

  2007

  2008

  2009

  2010

  2011

Introduction

1. First generation of computers 1950-1960s

2. Second generation of computers: 1960-1970s

3. Third generation of computers: 1970-1980s

4. Fourth generation of computers: 1980-1990s

5. Fifth generation of computers: 1990-present

Conclusion

Introduction

Since 1950, every 7-10 years the design-technological and software-algorithmic principles of constructing and using computers have been radically updated. In this regard, it is legitimate to talk about generations computers. Conventionally, each generation can be allocated 10 years.

Computers have come a long evolutionary way in terms of the element base (from lamps to microprocessors) as well as in the sense of the emergence of new capabilities, expanding the scope and nature of their use.

The division of computers into generations is a very conditional, loose classification of computing systems according to the degree of development of hardware and software, as well as methods of communication with the computer.

The first generation of computers includes machines created at the turn of the 50s: vacuum tubes were used in the circuits. There were few commands, the controls were simple, and the RAM capacity and performance indicators were low. Performance is about 10-20 thousand operations per second. Printing devices, magnetic tapes, punched cards and punched paper tapes were used for input and output.

The second generation of computers includes those machines that were designed in 1955-65. They used both vacuum tubes and transistors. RAM was built on magnetic cores. At this time, magnetic drums and the first magnetic disks appeared. So-called high-level languages ​​have appeared, the means of which allow the description of the entire sequence of calculations in a visual, easily understandable form. Appeared big set library programs for solving various mathematical problems. The second generation machines were characterized by software incompatibility, which made it difficult to organize large information systems Therefore, in the mid-60s there was a transition to the creation of computers that were software compatible and built on a microelectronic technological base.

Third generation of computers. These are machines created after the 60s that have a single architecture, i.e. software compatible. Multiprogramming capabilities have appeared, i.e. simultaneous execution of several programs. Third generation computers used integrated circuits.

Fourth generation of computers. This is the current generation of computers developed after 1970. The 4th generation machines were designed to effectively use modern high-level languages ​​and simplify the programming process for end user.

In terms of hardware, they are characterized by the use of large integrated circuits as an elemental base and the presence of high-speed random access storage devices with a capacity of several MB.

4th generation machines are multi-processor, multi-machine complexes running on external power. memory and general field ext. devices. Performance reaches tens of millions of operations per second, memory - several million words.

The transition to the fifth generation of computers has already begun. It consists in a qualitative transition from data processing to knowledge processing and in increasing the basic parameters of a computer. The main emphasis will be on “intelligence”.

Today, the actual "intelligence" demonstrated by the most complex neural networks is below the level of an earthworm, however limited the capabilities neural networks today, many revolutionary discoveries may be just around the corner.

1. First generation of computers 1950-1960s

Logic circuits were created using discrete radio components and electronic vacuum tubes with a filament. Random access memories used magnetic drums, acoustic ultrasonic mercury and electromagnetic delay lines, cathode ray tubes(CRT). Drives on magnetic tapes, punched cards, punched tapes and plug-in switches were used as external storage devices.

The programming of this generation of computers was carried out in the binary number system in machine language, that is, the programs were strictly focused on specific model cars “died” along with these models.

In the mid-1950s, machine-oriented languages ​​such as symbolic coding languages ​​(SCLs) appeared, allowing instead binary notation commands and addresses use their abbreviated verbal (letter) notation and decimal numbers. In 1956, the first high-level programming language for mathematical problems was created - the Fortran language, and in 1958 - the universal programming language Algol.

Computers, starting from UNIVAC and ending with BESM-2 and the first models of the Minsk and Ural computers, belong to the first generation of computers.

2. Second generation of computers: 1960-1970s

Logic circuits were built on discrete semiconductor and magnetic elements (diodes, bipolar transistors, toroidal ferrite microtransformers). Printed circuit circuits (boards made of foil getinax) were used as a design and technological basis. The block principle of machine design has become widely used, which allows you to connect a large number of different external devices to the main devices, which provides greater flexibility in the use of computers. Clock frequencies of electronic circuits have increased to hundreds of kilohertz.

Began to be used external drives on hard magnetic disks1 and on floppy disks - an intermediate level of memory between magnetic tape drives and random access memory.

In 1964, the first computer monitor appeared - the IBM 2250. It was a monochrome display with a 12 x 12 inch screen and a resolution of 1024 x 1024 pixels. It had a frame rate of 40 Hz.

Control systems created on the basis of computers demanded higher performance from computers, and most importantly, reliability. Error detection and correction codes and built-in control circuits have become widely used in computers.

In second-generation machines, batch processing and teleprocessing modes of information were implemented for the first time.

The first computer that partially used semiconductor devices instead of vacuum tubes, there was a SEAC (Standards Eastern Automatic Computer) machine, created in 1951.

In the early 60s, semiconductor machines began to be produced in the USSR.

3. Third generation of computers: 1970-1980s

In 1958, Robert Noyce invented the small silicon integrated circuit, which could house dozens of transistors in a small area. These circuits later became known as Small Scale Integrated circuits (SSI). And already in the late 60s, integrated circuits began to be used in computers.

The logic circuits of 3rd generation computers were already entirely built on small integrated circuits. Clock frequencies of electronic circuits have increased to several megahertz. The supply voltage (units of volts) and the power consumed by the machine have decreased. The reliability and speed of computers have increased significantly.

Random access memories used smaller ferrite cores, ferrite plates, and magnetic films with a rectangular hysteresis loop. Disk drives have become widely used as external storage devices.

Two more levels of storage devices have appeared: ultra-random access memory devices on trigger registers, which have enormous speed but small capacity (tens of numbers), and high-speed cache memory.

Since the moment widespread use integrated circuits in computers, technological progress in computing can be observed using the well-known Moore's law. One of the founders Intel Gordon Moore in 1965 discovered a law according to which the number of transistors in one microcircuit doubles every 1.5 years.

Due to the significant complication of both hardware and logical structure 3rd generation computers often began to be called systems.

Thus, the first computers of this generation were models of IBM systems (a number of IBM 360 models) and PDP (PDP 1). In the Soviet Union, in collaboration with the countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, East Germany, etc.1), models began to be produced unified system(EC) and small computer (SM) systems.

In third-generation computers, significant attention is paid to reducing the complexity of programming, the efficiency of program execution in machines, and improving communication between the operator and the machine. This is ensured by powerful operating systems, advanced programming automation, efficient program interruption systems, time-sharing operating modes, real-time operating modes, multi-program operating modes and new interactive communication modes. An effective video terminal device for communication between the operator and the machine has also appeared - a video monitor, or display.

Much attention focused on improving the reliability and reliability of computer operation and facilitating their maintenance. Reliability and reliability are ensured by the widespread use of codes with automatic error detection and correction (Hamming correction codes and cyclic codes).

The modular organization of computers and the modular construction of their operating systems created ample opportunities to change the configuration of computing systems. In this regard, a new concept of “architecture” of a computer system arose, defining logical organization this system from the point of view of the user and programmer.

4. Fourth generation of computers: 1980-1990s

A revolutionary event in development computer technology The third generation of machines was the creation of large and ultra-large integrated circuits (Large Scale Integration - LSI and Very Large Scale Integration - VLSI), a microprocessor (1969) and a personal computer. Since 1980, almost all computers began to be created on the basis of microprocessors. The most popular computer has become a personal computer.

Logic integrated circuits in computers began to be created on the basis of unipolar field-effect CMOS transistors with direct connections, operating with smaller amplitudes of electrical voltages (units of volts), consuming less power than bipolar ones, and thereby allowing the implementation of more advanced nanotechnologies (in those years - on a scale units of microns).

The first personal computer was created in April 1976 by two friends, Steve Jobe (b. 1955), an Atari employee, and Stefan Wozniak (b. 1950), who worked at Hewlett-Packard. Based on the integrated 8-bit hard-soldered circuit controller of the popular electronic game, working in the evenings in a car garage, they made a simple Apple gaming computer programmed in BASIC, which was a wild success. In early 1977, Apple Co. was registered, and production of the world's first personal computer, Apple, began.

5. Fifth generation of computers: 1990-present

Features of the architecture of the modern generation of computers are discussed in detail in this course.

Briefly, the basic concept of a fifth-generation computer can be formulated as follows:

1. Computers on ultra-complex microprocessors with a parallel-vector structure that simultaneously perform dozens of sequential instructions programs.

2. Computers with many hundreds of parallel working processors, allowing the construction of data and knowledge processing systems, efficient network computer systems.

Sixth and subsequent generations of computers

Electronic and optoelectronic computers with massive parallelism, neural structure, with a distributed network of a large number (tens of thousands) of microprocessors modeling the architecture of neural biological systems.

Conclusion

All stages of computer development are conventionally divided into generations.

The first generation was created on the basis of vacuum electric lamps, the machine was controlled from a remote control and punch cards using machine codes. These computers were housed in several large metal cabinets that occupied entire rooms.

The third generation appeared in the 60s of the 20th century. Computer elements were made on the basis of semiconductor transistors. These machines processed information under the control of programs in Assembly language. Data and programs were entered from punched cards and punched tapes.

The third generation was performed on microcircuits containing hundreds or thousands of transistors on one plate. An example of a third generation machine is the ES computer. The operation of these machines was controlled from alphanumeric terminals. High-level languages ​​and Assembly were used for control. Data and programs were entered both from the terminal and from punched cards and punched tapes.

The fourth generation was created on the basis of large-scale integrated circuits (LSI). Most prominent representatives fourth generation COMPUTER - personal computers(PC). A universal single-user microcomputer is called personal. Communication with the user was carried out through a color graphic display using high-level languages.

The fifth generation is based on ultra-large-scale integrated circuits (VLSI), which are distinguished by the colossal density of logic elements on the chip.

It is assumed that in the future, input of information into a computer from voice, communication with a machine in natural language, computer vision, machine touch, the creation of intelligent robots and robotic devices will become widespread.

Comparison options	Computer generations
	first	second	third	fourth
Period of time	1946 - 1959	1960 - 1969	1970 - 1979	since 1980
Element base (for control unit, ALU)	Electronic (or electric) lamps	Semiconductors (transistors)	Integrated circuits	Large scale integrated circuits (LSI)
Main type of computer	Large		Small (mini)	Micro
Basic input devices	Remote control, punched card, punched tape input	Added alphanumeric display and keyboard	Alphanumeric display, keyboard	Color graphic display, scanner, keyboard
Main output devices	Alphanumeric printing device (ADP), punched tape output		Plotter, printer
External memory	Magnetic tapes, drums, punched tapes, punched cards	Added magnetic disk	Punched paper tapes, magnetic disk	Magnetic and optical discs
Key decisions in software	Universal programming languages, translators	Batch operating systems that optimize translators	Interactive operating systems, structured languages programming	Friendly software, network operating systems
Computer operating mode	Single program	Batch	Time sharing	Personal work and network processing
Purpose of using a computer	Scientific and technical calculations	Technical and economic calculations	Management and economic calculations	Telecommunications, information services

Table - Main characteristics of computers of various generations

Generation	1	2	3	4
Period, years	1946 -1960	1955-1970	1965-1980	1980-present vr.
Element base	Vacuum tubes	Semiconductor diodes and transistors	Integrated circuits	Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits
Architecture	Von Neumann architecture	Multiprogram mode	Local networks Computers, shared computing systems	Multiprocessor systems, personal computers, global networks
Performance	10 – 20 thousand op/s	100-500 thousand op/s	About 1 million op/s	Tens and hundreds of millions op/s
Software	Machine languages	Operating systems, algorithmic languages	Operating systems, dialog systems, computer graphics systems	Application packages, databases and knowledge, browsers
External devices	Input devices from punched tapes and punched cards,	ATsPU, teleprinters, NML, NMB	Video terminals, HDDs	NGMD, modems, scanners, laser printers
Application	Calculation problems	Engineering, scientific, economic objectives	ACS, CAD, scientific and technical tasks	Management tasks, communications, creation of workstations, text processing, multimedia
Examples	ENIAC, UNIVAC (USA); BESM - 1,2, M-1, M-20 (USSR)	IBM 701/709 (USA) BESM-4, M-220, Minsk, BESM-6 (USSR)	IBM 360/370, PDP -11/20, Cray -1 (USA); EU 1050, 1066, Elbrus 1.2 (USSR)	Cray T3 E, SGI (USA), PCs, servers, workstations from various manufacturers

Over the course of 50 years, several generations of computers have appeared, replacing each other. The rapid development of VT throughout the world is determined only by advanced element base and architectural solutions.
Since a computer is a system consisting of hardware and software, it is natural to understand a generation as computer models characterized by the same technological and software solutions(element base, logical architecture, software). Meanwhile, in a number of cases it turns out to be very difficult to classify VT by generation, because the line between them becomes more and more blurred from generation to generation.
First generation.
Elemental base - electronic lamps and relays; RAM was performed on flip-flops, later on ferrite cores. Reliability is low, a cooling system was required; Computers had significant dimensions. Performance - 5 - 30 thousand arithmetic op/s; Programming - in computer codes (machine code), later autocodes and assemblers appeared. Programming was carried out by a narrow circle of mathematicians, physicists, and electronics engineers. First generation computers were used mainly for scientific and technical calculations.

Second generation.
Semiconductor element base. Reliability and performance are significantly increased, dimensions and power consumption are reduced. Development of input/output facilities and external memory. A number of progressive architectural solutions and further development of programming technology - time sharing mode and multiprogramming mode (combining work central processor for processing data and input/output channels, as well as parallelizing operations for fetching commands and data from memory)
Within the second generation, the differentiation of computers into small, medium and large began to clearly appear. The scope of application of computers to solve problems - planning, economic, production process management, etc. - has expanded significantly.
Automated control systems (ACS) for enterprises, entire industries and technological processes (ACS) are being created. The end of the 50s is characterized by the emergence of a number of problem-oriented high-level programming languages ​​(HLPs): FORTRAN, ALGOL-60, etc. Software development began in the creation of libraries of standard programs in various languages programming and various purposes, monitors and dispatchers for controlling computer operating modes, planning its resources, which laid the foundation for the concepts of next-generation operating systems.

Third generation.
Element base on integrated circuits (IC). A series of computer models appear that are software compatible from the bottom up and have increasing capabilities from model to model. The logical architecture of computers and their periphery equipment, which significantly expanded the functionality and computing capabilities. Operating systems (OS) become part of a computer. Many tasks of managing memory, input/output devices and other resources began to be taken over by the OS or directly by the computer hardware. Software becomes powerful: database management systems (DBMS) and automation systems appear design work(CAD systems) for various purposes, automated control systems and process control systems are being improved. Much attention is paid to the creation of application program packages (APP) for various purposes.
Programming languages ​​and systems are developing. Examples: - series of IBM/360 models, USA, serial production-since 1964; -EU Computers, USSR and CMEA countries since 1972.
Fourth generation.
The element base is becoming large-scale (LSI) and ultra-large-scale (VLSI) integrated circuits. Computers were already designed for the efficient use of software (for example, UNIX-like computers, best immersed in the UNIX software environment; Prolog machines focused on artificial intelligence tasks); modern nuclear power plants. Telecommunications information processing is rapidly developing by improving the quality of communication channels using satellite communications. National and transnational information and computer networks are being created, which make it possible to talk about the beginning of the computerization of human society as a whole.
Further intellectualization of computer technology is determined by the creation of more developed human-computer interfaces, knowledge bases, expert systems, parallel programming systems, etc.
The element base has made it possible to achieve great success in miniaturization, increasing the reliability and performance of computers. Micro- and mini-computers have appeared, superior in capabilities to medium-sized and large-scale computers. previous generation at a significantly lower cost. The production technology of VLSI-based processors accelerated the pace of computer production and made it possible to introduce computers to the broad masses of society. With the advent of a universal processor on a single chip (microprocessor Intel-4004, 1971), the era of the PC began.
The first PC can be considered the Altair-8800, created on the basis of the Intel-8080, in 1974. E.Roberts. P. Allen and W. Gates created a translator from the popular Basic language, significantly increasing the intelligence of the first PC (later they founded the famous Microsoft company Inc). The face of the 4th generation is largely determined by the creation of supercomputers characterized by high performance (average speed 50 - 130 megaflops. 1 megaflops = 1 million operations per second with floating point) and non-traditional architecture (the principle of parallelization based on pipelined processing of commands) . Supercomputers are used in solving problems of mathematical physics, cosmology and astronomy, modeling complex systems, etc. Since powerful computers play and will continue to play an important switching role in networks, network issues are often discussed together with questions on supercomputers. Among domestic developments, supercomputers -Computers can be called the Elbrus series machines, the PS-2000 and PS-3000 computer systems, containing up to 64 processors controlled by a common command stream; performance on a number of tasks was achieved on the order of 200 megaflops. At the same time, taking into account the complexity of the development and implementation of modern supercomputer projects, which require intensive fundamental research in the field of computer science, electronic technologies, high production standards, serious financial costs, it seems very unlikely that in the foreseeable future the creation of domestic super-computers whose main characteristics are not inferior to the best foreign models.
It should be noted that with the transition to IP technology for computer production, the defining emphasis of generations is increasingly shifting from the element base to other indicators: logical architecture, software, user interface, application areas, etc.
Fifth generation.